Effects of Media on Adolescents

Effects of the Media on Adolescents Effects of the Media on Adolescents Sex and the secular lifestyle, seems to be the biggest selling industry on the marked, next to electronics; however has its fair share of effects on the adolescents of today. The media identifies or portrays the act of sexuality as the norm. The average television show often shows young girls being flirtatious, performing sexual acts, and disrespecting their parents. The media often display young men as sexual predators, acting like horn dogs, pressuring the girls for sex. Homosexuality is now more prevalent in the media, as other aspects of sexuality are. The good thing about the media and its advanced sexual content is that it helps to educate the youths about what is out there in these streets, such as sexually transmitted diseases, sexual predators, and how to deal with people such as homosexuals; who might be considered different. With the exposure to this type of media, the adolescents will be more aware and better equipped to deal with the situations that the might face while growing up. On the other hand, others may disagree with sexuality being so prevalent in the media. On the down side, too much sexual exposure may influence the youths to be more eager, and ready to participate in such acts. Even a young boy may think that the men they see dominating and assaulting women are cool, because of the level of control and power the men assume when the commit rape. It is very difficult to determine what may happen from viewing or listening to sexual media, so its best that some material be limited to the a specific age group; hence the rating on certain films. The media portrayal of sexuality was a big influence on me growing up. Being born on the Island of Jamaica, I grew up with a strong Christian background; loaded with good teachings of how to live with thy neighbor. So treating others as good as I would like to be treated, and honoring the commandments was my guide. However, the Island is also known for its culture of dancing carnival and whining, which are very sexual displays; also reggae music is either roots and culture or usually sexual lyrics. Along with the music, most parents or grandparents usually tell their children, that they know they might be growing pubic hair, but they are still children, and must respect their elders. As a child we could not watch any movies with sex scene, not even kissing, and public television had more fighting omitted romantic scenes. Though we understood sexuality, being limited to its exposure, in my opinion, helped to maintain a safer and less sexual environment, because we were less exposed to sex and more exposed to dancing dirty and fine art. Overall, the media can be good and it can be bad. It is for the parents and adults of today, to help censor some of the things that’s in the media as we deem fit for our youths and their households. At the end of the day, each home differs and people may react differently to the same type of exposure. I am more for less sexuality in the media, because the less a child knows about a certain thing, the less they will explore it. Eventually they will know it, but it will happen over time.

The Emulation of Art ; Life

In all walks of everyday life, lessons and experiences are collected in hopes to use them in future scenarios. Many writers throughout history have said they have used these occurrences in their work. At various point in life situations arise in which decisions must be made and once the choice is being carried out, there comes a point when one cannot go back and change course. This inability to revert one’s path is called the â€Å"Point of No Return. † In other instances the use of geography may not only be viewed literally but also serve as a metaphor.There are also periods when isolation has an effect on the behavior of an individual. Point of no return, use of geographic surroundings and isolation are concepts used in all of the following works: Francis Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now (Now), William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily† (A Rose), and Tim O’Brien’s â€Å"The Things They Carried† (Things). In these three pieces one shall see not only the ideas of â€Å"Point of No Return† (PNR), geographic surroundings, and isolation, but the notion of art imitating life. Foremost, PNR comes in a variety of ways for each of the many characters we encounter in these adventures.In Now, we see Willard’s PNR towards the end of the film after he has arrived at Kurtz’s compound. As he sits in the darkness, Chef’s decapitated head is thrust into his lap. Without Chef to aid him, Willard realizes he is truly on his own. In order to escape Kurtz’s world intact, he must complete his mission alone. In the case of Emily’s manservant in â€Å"A Rose,† the PNR is depicted after the death of Emily. â€Å"The negro met the first of the ladies at the front door and let them in, with their hushed, sibilant voices and their quick, curious glances, and then he disappeared.He walked right through the house and out the back and was not seen again. † (Faulkner, pg. 7) The mans ervant is aware of the truth of Emily’s dark life which shall soon be exposed to all and does not want to be in the vicinity when it happens. For Lt. Cross in â€Å"Things†, the PNR occurs following Ted Lavender being shot and killed. â€Å"It wouldn’t help Lavender, he knew that, but from this point on he would comport himself as a soldier. † (O’Brien, 13) After this tragic event, a transformation in the Lt. ’s attitude towards the remaining men occurs. On the morning after Ted Lavender died, First Lieutenant Jimmy Cross crouched at the bottom of his foxhole and burned Martha’s letters. † (O’Brien, 12) His feelings of love for Martha have also been replaced by an emotion resembling anger. Given these examples, PNR is present in each one of these accounts. The use of geography can be interpreted in numerous ways. As the men in Now make their way into the depths of the jungle, the Nyung River gradually becomes narrow. Slow ly the soldiers are picked off one by one. The group begins to diminish, as does the width of the waterway.Another use of geographic surroundings is found in Faulkner’s work. His description of Emily’s home and its location demonstrate the similarity in her temperament. â€Å"But garages and cotton gins had encroached and obliterated even the august names of that neighborhood; only Miss Emily’s house was left, lifting its stubborn and coquettish decay above the cotton wagons and the gasoline pumps- -an eyesore among eyesores. † (Faulkner, pg. 1) Although modern technology is progressing all around her traditional neighborhood, and the South for that matter, she stubbornly refuses to adapt.The geography is split into both literal and metaphoric ways in â€Å"Things. † â€Å"They carried the land itself. Vietnam, the place, the sod- a powdery orange-red dust that covered their boots and fatigues and faces. They carried the sky. The whole atmosphere, they carried it, the humidity, the monsoons, the stink of fungus and decay, all of it, they carried gravity. † (O’Brien, pg. 7) Not only did the soldiers carry the soil of Vietnam on their boots but they carried the experiences of Vietnam in their minds. All of the tangible and idealistic aspects of being in a war-torn country are what these souls carried.Geography used by these storytellers create a world which not only can be seen but be felt deep within. Lastly, the third concept found in each of these works is isolation. A wise man once said, â€Å"The true character of a person is revealed once they think no one is watching. † (A. Mancha) This becomes evident in NOW when the three remaining men have reached Kurtz’s dwelling. In front of the natives, Kurtz is God-like in his demeanor. However, inside the temple and away from his worshipers, Willard sees what lies beneath Kurtz, a man. A man who poetically writes the horrors of what he has seen, done a nd become.Willard becomes conscious of Kurtz’s desire and anticipation of his own death. â€Å"Everybody wanted me to do it, him most of all. I felt like he was up there, waiting for me to take the pain away. He just wanted to go out like a soldier, standing up, not like some poor, wasted, rag-assed renegade. Even the jungle wanted him dead, and that's who he really took his orders from anyway. † Kurtz is aware of Willard’s mission and welcomes it. In â€Å"A Rose,† the segregation of Emily from society, enforced by her father â€Å"clutching a horsewhip† (Faulkner, pg3), played a major role in Emily’s lack of emotional and mental development. On a tarnished gilt easel before the fireplace stood a crayon portrait of Miss Emily’s father. †(Faulkner, pg. 2) Although Emily is of adult age she still remains much like a child as she uses crayons to create her father’s portrait. The isolation seen in â€Å"Things† comes in form of the deployment of the soldiers.These men are stripped from everything they know, from the families they love to the climates they are familiar with. â€Å"The things they carried were largely determined by necessity. † (O’Brien, pg. ) The men have replaced these elements with items each soldier deems essential for survival. This is not limited to weapons and food but also pictures, books and other mementos from home. As one can see, Coppola, Faulkner, and O’Brien’s works reflect abstract and concrete notions of art imitating life. By using PNR, geography and isolation, these men were able to illustrate their points on a deep and abysmal level. The impact these works have had on society are invaluable and because of their timeless nature will continue to influence artists throughout the years.

Amusement Park Place Essay Example for Free

Amusement Park Place Essay Amusement Parks are on of Americans favorite places to go. You get to ride roller-coasters, play games and just have fun. The thrill you get by getting is one of the best feelings you will ever have. When you first walk in the amusement park you feel your adrenaline rush by seeing all the people go crazy over the roller-coasters and the games. Adventure parks are an adventure that everyone needs to experience once in their life. Roller-coasters are a thrill that everyone should experience at an amusement park. Rollercoasters are what make amusement parks so fun. There are many different types of roller-coaster that has many different types of loops such as a corkscrew, the regular flip, and many more. Some of the biggest roller-coasters that I have ever been on are the ones at Six Flags. I rode the Batman, Superman, Georgia Scorcer, Deja-Vu, and all the other roller-coasters they had. My favorite was Superman; you are flying through the air just like Superman. The loops were like corkscrews and had some straight drops. Everyone needs to experience a roller-coaster ride at least once. There are many amusement parks all around the United States that you can go to and have fun. One is in Atlanta, Georgia home of Six Flags. Another one is located in Cedar Point, Ohio which is called Cedar Point and is one of the most popular visited amusement parks. Another one is Bush Gardens located in Tampa, Florida. I got to visit Bush Gardens this past Spring Break it was the best amusement park I have ever been to. There were a lot of family activities such as games, food, and roller-coasters. They didn’t have many roller-coasters, but the ones that they did have were my favorite. There are a lot of many different amusement parks around the country that you can take your family and have a great time. Games at amusement parks are also what make amusement parks so much fun. If you are scared to ride the rides just go ahead and play games. There are many games you can play like basketball shoot, racing games, shooting games and many more. If you end up doing good in the games then you will get prizes such as stuffed animals, candy and a lot more stuff. Games at amusement parks are parks are fun to play and make the amusement park experience unforgettable. Amusement Parks are fun for families and friends to go and bond for the day. Amusement Parks are enjoyed when you go and the ride the roller-coasters, play games, eat food, and go to Some of the shows that the parks have to offer. Amusement parks have been around forever and and that is why so many Americans love them so much. They allow you to have fun and relax for the day. Amusement Parks are a lot of fun and I think everyone should go to at least once to see for themselves. Amusement Park Place. (2017, Feb 03).

Entry into foreign market Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Entry into foreign market - Assignment Example Analyzing the market condition in Myanmar, have shown ample opportunity for the foreign companies to expand and enter Myanmar. Investing in Myanmar can sound very lucrative as the market is surrounded with diverse range of business opportunities and is rich in natural and mineral resources so Cameron International Corporation has all the valid reason to expand its business and expand into oil and gas resources in Myanmar. However with opportunities of the company to enter Myanmar, the foreign country is also associated with risk such as low economic growth. The economic growth is rated below the potential growth about 6% in the fiscal year 2012-2013 which is driven by FDI in sectors such as infrastructure, oil and energy. Consumption seems to remain stable built it does not contributes towards the economic growth due to the population under the poverty line. Inflation is expected to reach about 5.8% in 2012 and 2013 and this is because of the inability of the central bank to induce m onetary growth. The GDP is also expected to deteriorate along with the service sectors. Further Myanmar had in the past two set of exchange rates which recently changed into a single exchange rate which aims to remove distortion of market favoring the mode of entry through FDI. Myanmar is among the emerging market and has been undergoing economic as well as political reform and doing business in Myanmar are subject to risk and thus Cameron International Corporation should thoroughly investigate the conditions of the market. before entering the market. But Myanmar has huge opportunity and it is feasible to enter the market. VRIO Analysis The VRIO framework was initiated by Barney and VRIO stands for Valuable, Rare, and Inimitable and organized (Kazmi, p.127). Valuable: If Cameron International Corporation enters Myanmar, it will be valuable for the company as Myanmar is well versed in natural and mineral resources and the company entering the market with its oil and gas will proved t o be valuable for the company and the economy as a whole. Therefore it can be said that the entry into Myanmar market is valuable and should be encouraged so that better opportunity and business prospective are developed and leads to economic growth. Rare: Cameron International Corporation provides flow equipment and pressure control equipment for both land and sea oil rigs and incurs revenue of $6,134.8million along with net profit of $562.9million in 2010. Since Myanmar has huge natural and mineral resources, the company will be able to utilize it effectively. Inimitable: the work done by the companies are hard to imitate as it requires heavy capital and huge brand name. The company has a huge brand name and is able to generate

Health Promotion Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Health Promotion Report - Essay Example As per the guidelines published by the Moodie and Hulme in their book; the assignment is also promoting "building blocks for health promotion" with an understanding of epidemiology and measures population health of a particular community. The assignment evaluates and examines closely the health needs of a specific age group of children belonging to 5-10 years. Based on this evaluation a health promotion activity must be implemented for the particular group of population. This is promoted with the use of signage, posters, radio interview/announcement, health education (e.g. stall at the local show or shopping centre), structured change (e.g. health awareness classes), advocacy (e.g. providing support to implement change such as lobbying the local council to tackle the problem of risk taking behavior by teenage boys) and capacity building by encouraging the development of policy (e.g. media advertising to encourage men to engage in regular exercise) (Barnes and Row, 2008). Promotional strategies creating awareness about the health either at the local school, shopping centre, child care centre, community health centre must be implemented for this a deep understanding about the community must be made (Talbot, 2005). Educational strategies encompass the level of education of the community being addressed. This must be focused and kept under consideration to convey the message and make the message understood by the community. For this a role model must be organized to discuss the issues with the target group. Promotion of such issues can be performed with the help of media (Talbot, 2005). To gather support to the strategy thorough campaigning with the Roads and Traffic Authorities must be done. This not only provides funding but also expertise to assist with the activities and must be advocated in order to support the program (Child and Youth Health). A health sector must be involved to encourage the development of the policies to provide a mandate for the community to follow and assure them for its safety. The documents must be submitted related with the evaluation of health promotion activities. It must emphasize the action plan to be implemented (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare). All these activities require the process of information gathering, evaluation, influencing policy, public health law, advocacy, communication, leadership and management, partnerships and community mobilization (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare). The report identifies the need of the target group localized at the indo china community centre. This group encompasses asthmatic children belonging to the age group of 5-7 years. A deep understanding about the community is required to formulate the health promotion strategies. Awareness about the language spoken by these people, their cultural impact, their socioeconomic status is the imperative part of the health promotion strategies (SIDS Australia). The contact must be established with the target group either through personal meetings or through contacts to gather the required information. For this teacher of the school or area health profession must be confided to procure the data. The data collected must be recorded and filed to get the assessment. Their day to day life and eating habits must be emphasized so as to get an overall view for carrying out the assessment. Every community adopts

Starting with approximately 1900 and going to the present, how has Essay

Starting with approximately 1900 and going to the present, how has international relations changed over this period Identify th - Essay Example (Devetak, Burke and George) The era starting from the 1900 till present witnessed a systematic change in the international relations and the overall role of states within the overall global scene. From the rise of the nation-state to the emergence of sole superpower of the world, international relations drastically changed. The advancement in the technology and improvement in the military power coupled with global power of large corporations, international relations are not what they used to be in the 19th century. There has been a gradual shift towards redefining the roles and responsibilities of major nations along with that of the other nations. This paper will discuss and explore as to what changed in international relations since 1900. This paper will explore as to what were the major changes and the causes of such changes taking place at the global stage of international relations. International Relations since 1900 Starting with 1900, Germany started to emerge as one of the le ading players in the world stage. With increasing military power, it started to engage with Britain and France, two of the other most important players in the international arena. ... The rise of Germany resulted into the wars between the European superpowers which also resulted into the weakening of the power of the European States. The Balkan Wars, the Bosnian crisis, the outbreak of first and Second World War has created significant change in the international relations. The period after 1919 is considered as an important period in which the World actually made a transition into a new era owing to the efforts of Woodrow Wilson. The creation of League of Nation is considered as one of the most important change in the international relations as it signaled a systematic introduction of the role of global institutions in the overall domain of international relations. The League of Nations started a new direction in the international relations wherein institutions like League of Nations and subsequently United Nations become significant influencing authorities in international relations. (Lawson) It is also important to note that with the weakening of the European P owers due to World War II has resulted into creation and independence of new countries in the world. This has further increase the number of regional players to dominate the regional politics as well as influence the international politics. Countries like India emerged in the mid of the 1900 and quickly became the regional powers with the ability to withstand the pressure from the bigger superpowers of the world. The increase in the number of independent countries has also resulted into further conflicts at the regional level. The issue of Middle East and Palestine emerged as one of the important issues involving many regional as well as global players. Besides, the conflict between India and Pakistan and subsequently between India and China also

Psychology questions Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Psychology questions - Term Paper Example For Christian therapy and therapy in general, I think it’s necessary to, in a sense, disregard these findings and adopt a pro-active worldview that emphasizes the individual’s agency in facing and combating their psychic complications and dysfunctions. 2. I believe that Freud’s theories are an approximation of human nature and the use of his terms like ego defense mechanisms and the unconscious are not scientifically accurate. I think any therapy would benefit from the aspects of Freudian psychotherapy that seek to find the deep undercurrents of issues over a prolonged investigative period, but that it would be erroneous to believe that a therapeutic approach that doesn’t involve specific Freudian approaches and Freudian terminology is ineffective. 3. In reviewing Freud’s stage of psychosexual development I am drawn to the means by which individuals have set stages and struggles they must encounter in order to developmentally progress. While Freud is predominantly concerned with the childhood stages of development, he concludes his psychosexual stages of development with the genital phase which includes large portions of adolescence and young adulthood (Mitchell 1996). When I consider such stages in my own life I am drawn to the period after graduation from high school when I faced a sort of personal crisis as to my place in the world and maturity. I approached this life stage with determination and consistency in both school and my social life; I would apply these principles to my therapeutic approach as I believe they can be applied to a wide variety of developmental challenges. 4. Considering death from a spiritual standpoint, I believe that it is necessary for one to consider their own mortality and find a certain meaning or purpose in their life. I don’t think it’s necessarily essential that an individual embrace a belief in an afterlife, but that they understand that their time on Earth is limited and

The Legend of John Henry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Legend of John Henry - Essay Example Recent interpretations include Disney’s short film John Henry and Julius Lester’s children’s book John Henry. Disney’s film pictures John Henry as a historical civil rights hero, a symbol of African American empowerment, while Lester’s book illustrates Henry as a Christ-like figure, attaching a more mystical connotation of the hero. The different interpretations of John Henry as a mythical hero in black folklore reveal how he has become the embodiment of black freedom, dreams, and strength. As these adaptations show, his name holds a symbolic power that allows audiences to appropriate his heroics according to their wish. This tale is presented differently in most of children literature versions. Walt Disney’s ‘John Henry’ film and Lester’s ‘John Henry’ book are examined., with a goal of determining if it is necessary for people to deviate from the original story when talking about this myth. In 2000, Walt Disn ey Studios created a film adaptation of the John Henry myth in which they transformed him into a selfless hero. This film was intended to introduce children to the â€Å"the doers and dreamers that made America great,† a knowledge Disney claims â€Å"no childhood should be without† (Website). A common feature of Disney adaptations of various fairytales, legends, and myths is the didactic messages that have been incorporated into them. In The Legend of John Henry, John uses his strength to benefit the people rather than have it displayed merely to demonstrate his own power. In this way, Disney tries to educate children on qualities they should develop within themselves. Placing John Henry before them as a role model, Walt Disney Studios attaches to him Western values, those that adults wish to instill in children of America. At the same time, the film can also be seen as Disney’s attempt to create a hero that children of African American descent can identify with and be proud of. John Henry is the first animated African American protagonist created by Disney (Web). The theme of the film is evident from the opening; it begins with the narrator, an African American woman, saying, â€Å"Let me tell you about my John Henry, who laid down his life for his dream† (film). The film goes on to portray Henry as an emancipated slave that swears never again to be in chains. At one point Henry tells his wife, â€Å"Polly, if they steal our dreams they put a chain around our souls, somebody’s got to stand tall, believe me† (film). The idea of Henry being a slave is not found in original variations of the legend, which focus more on his mythical upbringing and displays of strength. In this way Disney attempts to historicize Henry; as a slave contextualized within a specific time period he appears more real. This realism helps to verify the message of the story; the more believable the underdog legend appears the more powerful its mess age is to audiences. At the same time however, Disney also presents the idea that a hero’s reputation extends beyond the limits of his or her own reality. It is mentioned in the film that after John Henry joined the railroad gang, the rumors about his strength and achievements started growing. This referral separates the man from the myth while simultaneously maintaining the integrity and magic of the

Master Delivery Schedule (Event Management) Case Study

Master Delivery Schedule (Event Management) - Case Study Example The River festival is held every year at several locations. This event is run in both forms, be it free of cost or trade fare events. These kinds of festivals are necessary for society so that people can interact with each other and are given a platform to turn the life into joy and fun. In today’s times every individual is tied up in their busy schedules and is busy neck deep in trying to make ends meet. Therefore, they do not find time to interact with each other and celebrate the life. Thus, these kinds of festivals are medium to connect people and give them a chance to get off their busy lifestyles and enjoy life. It is significant to note that people only want to go in festivals or celebrations that give them adequate amount of entertainment and leisure, which is only possible through good event management. The specialty of this river festival is that it provides high quality services and entertainment to visitors and that’s the reason it has gained immense popular ity over the years. Another reason for the increasing popularity of this river festival is its association with Brisbane festival. Brisbane is also a big series of events, which is now merged with the River festival. Reason behind the merger is to give it the potential to be the best festival in the whole of Australia. A large globally renowned Australian production company is also associated with this festival render its quality support. Thus, best event management services are planned to make the even a huge success. Various cultural programs, music shows, visual arts etc. are included in this festival to make it more interesting so that largest crowd can be attracted to the event (Maidstone river festival 2010). Identification and roles of key operations stakeholders: Key operations stakeholders are significant entities in any master delivery schedule and the recognition of these key operations stakeholders is of prime importance. In Riverfestival, operations stakeholders play an important part and the success of this large scale event will be dependent on the same. Good operations stakeholders are identified by observing the activities being performed by various parties in Riverfestival. However, operations stakeholders claim their roles and perform the allocated tasks in the Riverfestival, if they perform good activities, then management of festival would not be a problem (Phillips and Stawarski 2008). Stakeholders of Riverfestival have various functions. These stakeholders include transportation agencies, law enforcement agencies, public safety agencies, event organizers, elected official etc. The public safety agencies include fire and EMS. Emergency services and other concerned services for good event management in Riverfestival are only possible by proper coordination of all the stakeholders involved. Thus, it is obvious that stakeholders play a significant role in the success of Riverfestival. Implementation of various programs in an appropriate mann er is also important. All programs are executed with the help of proper involvement of stakeholders (Global expertise in meeting and event management). Outline of traffic management planning and operations: Traffic management planning and operations is also an important criterion for the success of Riverfestival. Traffic management planning includes good traffic control services required in a festival

Epistemology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Epistemology - Essay Example Different idealists have a different perception regarding how the substance is dependent on the consciousness. Therefore there are many diverse types of idealism. Subjective idealism is mainly simple and it can be said that this type of idealism is the most popular type of idealism. These idealists believe that substance is formed from the rational elements of the mind which examine it. For example, the feeling spectators have when going through a number of sensations is all that there actually is to those sensations. Subjective idealism might look a bit odd although there is the existence of definite reasoning behind it. Absolute idealism is the belief that the reality of tangible things rely on one fundamental psychological reality and not on the psychological elements of each person as an observer. These idealists believe that there is only one fundamental mental or holy object or standard whose psychological action and element strengthens the continuation of the tangible world. P luralistic idealism is a belief that numerous individual minds exist and jointly they motivate the subsistence of the world. They believe that person mind is the main foundation of reality.The term idealism was first coined by Leibniz (1646-1716), he used this term to while talking about the philosophy of Plato. However, in the history, this term normally signifies a time period from the end of the 1700s till the initial years of the next century. In actuality, idealism has a much wider historical scale.

Sample Research Paper for English Essay Example for Free

Sample Research Paper for English Essay The struggle now being waged in the professoriate over which writers deserve canonical status is not just a struggle over the relative merits of literary geniuses; it is a struggle among contending factions for the right to be represented in the picture America draws of itself. (Tompkins 201) In 1850, with the help of her well-known father, James Fenimore Cooper, Susan Fenimore Cooper published Rural Hours, a natural historical account of one year in the Otsego Lake area of New York state. I mention her fathers name in order to situate Susan Fenimore Cooper in literary history, or, more accurately, to position her book in relation to our understandings of literary history. For truthfully, if literary history were faithful to the developments of, and reactions to, literature of the past, Susan Fenimore Coopers name would be well-known to all scholars of nineteenth-century American literature. Her book was immensely popular both in America and abroad; it went through six printings by 1854, the publication year of Thoreaus Walden. Rural Hours was reissued with a new chapter in 1868, reprinted again in 1876, and then abridged by 199 pages and reissued in 1887. When critics praised Rural Hours1 and the volume sold well, Susan Fenimore Cooper achieved literary fame as a writer of natural history. However, while many of her contemporaries knew her name, most scholars in the 1990s know only of her father. Why this oversight in the construction of literary history?2 In 1968, David Jones, a visitor to the Otsego Lake region in New York, reissued the 1887 edition of Coopers book. In his introduction he compares Rural Hours to the canonically established Walden and claims, Rural Hours is not, like Walden, a multi-level book (xxxvii). Instead Coopers text, Jones asserts, tells us as [well] as a book canhow a representative part of the rural northeastern United States looked, sounded, smelled, and even felt in the middle of the nineteenth century (xxxvii-viii). Admittedly, portraying a location so fully is no small task, and although Jones intimates that Rural Hours provides enjoyable light reading, he clearly believes that Thoreaus text far surpasses Coopers in its complexity and depth. I want to suggest that Joness evaluation of Rural Hours overlooks subtle but important textual intricacies, that Coopers text is  multi-levelled, and is, in fact, concerned with much more than the local flora and fauna of the Otsego Lake region. One problem in determining the literary value of Rural Hours lies in our inability to classify its genre. The book takes the form of a nonfictional journal, but Rural Hours cannot be classified as autobiography in the traditional sense of one writer imparting the story of his or her life experiences. Cooper portrays her outside world as much as her personal experiences, and she relates her writings to her community more than to her own life. One is tempted to call Rural Hours nature writing and, in fact, her contemporary supporters do classify her text as such, but Coopers text does not meet the typical criteria for this genre, either. This is in part because of the imprecision of definitions of nature writing itself. Critics generally agree that nature writing is non-fictional prose in which the writer functions as an observer of the outside world, attempts to represent that outside world in language, and typically, reflects on the process of giving language to the natural world. It is commonly agreed that nature writing also evinces the authors reflections of his or her individual spiritual growth. Sharon Cameron, in writing about Thoreau, suggests that to write about nature is to write about how the mind sees nature, and sometimes about how the mind sees itself (44). In his recent study of several nature writers, Scott Slovic echoes and expands Camerons definition: [Nature writers] are not merely, or even primarily, analysts of nature or appreciators of naturerather, they are students of the human mind (3). We find, then, that according to our current definitions, nature writers write about their environment, but they also consider their personal relationship to it. Therefore, a writer like Coo per, who concerns herself more directly with her surroundings and less with her personal reactions to them, somehow does not quite fit the criteria for the genre. How can a book such as Rural Hours, rich with observations on the botany, ornithology, and natural history of an area, not be considered nature writing? I submit that we have been trained to read books about the natural world and  the human relationship to it in ways that affect our abilities to find value in texts that deviate from the canonical Thoreauvian forma form based on personal reflections regarding ones relationship with nature, ones connection to the community, the difficulties of conveying perceptions through language, and, most importantly, perhaps, the process of forming identity. When contemporary readers realize and examine the expectations that they bring to Rural Hours, and willingly suspend those expectations, thereby allowing the text to reveal its own agenda and voice its own concerns, they will discover that Coopers work is rich with insights regarding nineteenth-century Americas social, natural, and historical politics. Rural Hours is not so directly involved in exploring how the mind sees nature or how the mind sees itself. Instead, Cooper concerns herself with the ominous task of giving words to each aspect of her natural surroundings and to exploring the implications of this environment not for herself as an individual, but for her larger community, and ultimately, for the entire nation. We must ask, then, not only if Rural Hours has literary value, but also if we as critics can consider expanding our current conceptions of nature writing to accommodate a book such as Rural Hours. In his attempt to summarize what he considers to be the weaknesses of Coopers book, Jones quotes a description of autumn in Rural Hours and uses Coopers words to create an analogy concerning her prose: autumn, like Coopers prose, is variable, changeable, not alike twice in succession, gay and brilliant yesterday, more languid and pale today (xxxvii). As literature, Jones further explains, Rural Hours varies from brilliant in one passage to languid and pale in another (xxxvii). Jones offers very little support for this critical assessment of the book and, therefore, I cannot help but wonder why he truly found the narrative to be languid and pale. As we will see, Joness explanation for the weakness of Miss Coopers work is circular and underdeveloped, and supports the conventional notion that quality nature writing portrays less of nature, and more of the authors engagement with the natural world. Further examination of his criticisms will help to explain the exclusion of Rural Hours fr om most records of literary history. Jones explains, [Cooper] brought realism and vitality to her portrait of rural life by revealing its variable and changeable nature, to be sure, but the very act produced a major flaw in the book (xxxvii). Jones here suggests that Coopers realistic portrayal of the natural world is the very downfall of her book. However, her narrative dedication to the natural world, to its vitality and constancy, necessitates that portions of the text be purely descriptive. Jones thus seems to contradict himself: the one level at which Coopers text is unsurpassed, he asserts, is in its ability to so accurately and faithfully describe the natural world. This strength, however, is also the weakness of the book. Finally, Jones does not define this flaw at all; instead, he proceeds to discuss Thoreaus Walden. Jones assumes throughout his introduction that Thoreaus book is far superior to Coopers, that readers of Rural Hours will agree with this assessment, and that, therefore, his assessment requires no justification. This method of reasoning also presupposes that Walden and Rural Hours afford the same criteria for judgement, or, that they exhibit similar attempts at representing nature.3 If Cooper and Thoreau actually engage similar projects, this assessment is valid. If, however, these writers differ in their purposes, or representand react tothe natural world in distinct ways, then we need to examine these criteria of evaluation. How do we approach a text that attempts to represent the natural world on its own terms? Have we been taught to read texts whose straightforward depiction of the natural world is, seemingly, their main goal?4 If, as Jones suggests, Coopers prose remains so loyal to her subject that it is too realistic, and therefore borders on boring, we need to ask how we expect Cooper to represent nature so as to hold our attentions and why her contemporaries were not also bored by her book. Many questions arise: what are contemporary readers expectations of writing that engages the natural world? How do our expectations differ from those of readers in the nineteenth century? Assuming that readers bought and consumed Coopers text because they found interest in both its subject matter and its perspective, how does Coopers direct conveyance of the natural world reflect her  cultures interests and concerns?5 What is the role of nature in such a text, as opposed to the role of people? How often do we require that a realistic portrayal of nature be replaced by metaphor or symbolism, thereby preventing languid and pale prose? How often do we want to read specifically about nature, and how often are we more interested in exploring the human presence in nature? Finally, is Rural Hours actually poorly written, or boring? Such questions, originating from an attempt to understand the immense success and warm reception of Rural Hours in the mid- to late-nineteenth century, cause us to examine our conceptions of how writers should relate to nature, how their relations should be represented through language, and how weas readersshould read such texts. Read within our common understandings of nature writing, a conception that stresses writings influenced by the Romantics, Coopers prose may seem languid and pale, but if we approach Coopers text in other ways, as I will demonstrate, we will discern the richness of Rural Hours. Interest in writing that depicts the environment has increased in recent years. Clearly, texts such as Emersons Nature and Thoreaus Walden have dominated our reading lists, but studies such as Cecelia Tichis New World, New Earth and Annette Kolodnys The Lay of the Land and The Land Before Her investigate the history of American interest in the environment and invite us to consider a variety of literary forms as important in understanding how Americans have related to their natural environment through the centuries. Tichi states, Consistently since the seventeenth century [environmental reform] has formed an integral and important part of our cultural and literary history (x). American interest in the land infiltrates our earliest documents, as Tichi proves in her study. In early America, the American spirit and the American continent were bonded ideologically, and arguably continue to be bonded ideologically, albeit in different ways (Tichi ix). Another important study of Americans conceptions of the wilderness as reflected in literature is Bernard Rosenthals City of Nature. Rosenthals  study focuses on Coopers predecessors and contemporaries, and concludes that two ideas of nature emerge in the writings of the American Romantics. He locates one idea of nature in the conception of wilderness as the space to be assumed by the emerging American city. The second idea of nature concerns the new religious myth, an individual journey into nature for the purpose of establishing what Rosenthal terms the city of the self (27). Put another way, two irreconcilable connotations emerged as the most important definitions of the word nature: one in which nature represented commodity being transformed into civilization, and one in which nature became the metaphor for a new spiritual mythology for the nineteenth-century individual (Rosenthal 31).6 Rosenthal suggests that, during the nineteenth century, the majority of Americans conceived o f nature in this first way, and that most of the American Romantic writers worked within the second understanding of nature (71).7 These two conceptions of nature largely inform our readings of nineteenth-century texts that center, in some way, around the natural world. We have been taught not only to conceive of the natural world as a metaphor for our own society, but also to read texts that depict the natural world in terms of what they impart regarding the individual human spirit.8 We therefore approach texts that describe the natural world and that share personal reflections regarding the landscape with the expectation that they will either consider the transformation of nature into its purest form, civilization, or that they will explore nature as spiritual place, as the site of an interior journey to a private place in the spirit (Rosenthal 18), or that the author will attempt both visions of nature.9 As readers we are taught that while purely descriptive prose may be poetically beautiful, it is boring, contains no metaphor or symbolism, and therefore lacks importance because it does not pertain to individ ual spiritual growth. In the words of a colleague, We skim over the flowers and birds and pretty things and look for what really happens. However, what really happens often happens within the descriptive prose that we overlook. In relying on metaphor for our readings of such texts either the metaphor of nature as civilization or nature as self we fail to investigate the implications of capturing nature in language or the process by which a writer envisions  elements of nature and transforms that vision into linguistic representation. We fail, finally, to ask how this investigation into the natural world functions not only for the individual or for society, but for the natural world itself. At this point, some may accuse me of oversimplifying nature writing; some may argue that metaphor and symbolism are the more complicated ways in which authors employ language, and that to dismiss these linguistic forms is to reduce nature writing to the parroting of knowledge of natural history, or the meaningless naming of colors, sounds, and sights. I am not, however, suggesting that nature writing texts not be considered for their metaphorical value, only that we consider the implications of only considering them in this way. Susan K. Harris makes a similar point in her study of nineteenth-century womens sentimental novels written between 1840 and 1870: There appears to be an unspoken agreement not to submit nineteenth-century American womens novels to extended analytical evaluation, largely because the evaluative modes most of us were taught devalue this literature a priori. (44) While Harriss study focuses on fictional writings, the implications of her study for the study of nature writing and Susan Fenimore Coopers text are multiple and deserving of some attention. Harris finds that the criteria upon which scholars often scrutinize texts in order to determine their literary merit and the methods they employ in analyzing texts disregard important alternative aspects of texts. Harris suggests reading texts through a method she calls process analysis, a method of reading and interpreting a text that foregrounds the relationship of the literary critical task to the critics stance in her own time (145) and that considers the public, political and social context from which the text emerged. 10 Harris explains her belief that it is important to establish the terms of the debate(s) in which the text participates the positions it takes, and how these positions are embodied in its textual structure  (46).11 Thus, as the language of the text is foregrounded, we look at the text as both reactive and creative, and disregard the traditional concern that the text self-consciously embody timeless truths' (45). A text such as Coopers Rural Hours faces many of the obstacles in contemporary criticism that the sentimental novels that interest Harris face, especially when considered as part of the category of writing that has come to be called nature writing. Not only does Coopers book adopt a prosaic style that is contrary to those of canonized texts, but her book also forms part of a genre that itself is not very well established in the canon. She is, finally, a woman writing in a denigrated style within in a genre largely ignored by traditional scholarship. As critics have only recently begun to realize, historical and contemporary writers who represent their relationships to their surrounding environments exemplify differing ways of using language, and the linguistic methods these writers employ to represent and conceive of the natural world reflect, in complicated ways, the ideological implications of our cultural conceptions of nature. An understanding of the content of such writings, the issues they raise, and the methods of linguistic construction they employ will enable us, as literary scholars and historians, to realize how our language reflects our attitudes toward the earth, and more pointedly, how such attitudes have determined, prevented, or justified our actions against, and reactions to, the earth. The traditional approaches to such texts consider timeless truths in the forms of metaphors concerning nature as civilization or journeys to nature as journeys to the self. But these views often neglect to consider the authors in terest in the political and social opinions of the time concerning the proper relationship of society and the earth, and how writers in our society throughout history have coded such opinions in language.12 Studies such as Harriss often center on cultural conceptions of gender in womens fiction.13 The recent critical focus on issues of gender differentiation has lead contemporary critics to ask if women naturally relate to the outside world differently than men. In keeping with this  interest, Annette Kolodny suggested in her 1975 study, The Lay of the Land, that womens writings and linguistic usages have all along been offering us alternate means of expression and perception (ix) and that an examination of womens writings on the subject of nature could yield better understandings of American conceptions of the wilderness. Kolodny also states that a conscious and determined struggle to formulate for themselves the meaning of their landscape characterizes the writings of nineteenth-century Americans (Lay of the Land 71). Certainly both Cooper and Thoreaus texts engage in this struggle, although their engagements take different forms. Although I am not aware of any critical investigations as to whether Coopers and Thoreaus alternative narrative styles are based in gender differences,14 most recent critics of Cooper (of which there are few) do seize on the issue of gender when exploring her text. Unlike Jones, they quickly dismiss Thoreau from their studies, and instead suggest that Coopers text presents a representative depiction of womans relationship to the natural world in nineteenth-century America.15 The most recent study of Rural Hours appears in Vera Norwoods Made from This Earth, in which the author devotes a chapter to Susan Fenimore Cooper and her arguable influence on the women nature writers subsequent to her.16 Norwood argues that Cooper represented a literary domestic,17 a woman writer who wrote to deliver the scenes and values of middle-class homes to a wide readership (27). Thus, Norwood suggests, Cooper used the occasion of her book not only to describe her natural surroundings, but also to impart valuable lessons to her readers in a non-threatening manner. Norwood asserts that Cooper turned to nature to discover what nature teaches about the roles of women in the domestic realm. 18 For example, Cooper describes robins and praises the mother robins dedication to her young, implicitly suggesting that human mothers should emulate the robins self-sacrificing nature (Cooper 39-40/Norwood 37-8). Thus, Norwood sees a conversation in Rural Hours, a dialogue that Cooper creates in her text between the natural and human worlds in which gender roles in nature inform and enlighten gender roles in human society. Finally, Norwood claims that Cooper was consumed with understanding what nature suggests about female roles and family responsibilities, and how gender definitions and familial arrangements help  people comprehend what they see in nature (37). Cooper does occasionally focus on gender roles and responsibilities in Rural Hours, but to state that she is consumed with such issues greatly exaggerates her narrative interests. As Norwood points out, Cooper ruminates on the devoted mother robin, but she also, interestingly, refers to the voluntary imprisonment of the mother, and to her generous, enduring patience (Cooper 40). While this patience is clearly a noble attribute of parental affection for Cooper, the scene leaves her somewhat incredulous and stunned by the mothers consistent, uncomplaining waiting: Cooper admits this is a striking instance of parental devotion (40). While she may advocate human parental devotion, she also recognizes that the natural world is more willingly generous than the human world,19 and that whereas humans can learn from nature, there are also aspects of the natural world beyond human comprehension.20 Interestingly, and perhaps even provocatively, Norwood does not point out that the voluntarily imprisoned mothering robin is accompanied by the male of the little family, who occasionally relieves his mate by taking her place awhile and exerts himself to bring her food, and to sing for her amusement (40). Cooper includes his participation in her description of voluntary imprisonment; his is also a striking instance of parental affection. If Cooper invokes the mother robin as a testament to giving mothering, her invocation of the father bird suggests his necessary assistance around the nest. Ultimately, then, to read Coopers text in terms of its interest in gender affords some intriguing insights: Cooper clearly remains within her position as a middle- to upper-class lady throughout her narrative and, just as clearly, seeks confirmation of gender divisions and domestic roles from the natural world.21 These instances, though, are rare in Coopers text. The themes and issues that arise more often in Rural Hours concern the establishment of a national identity and history, and while Cooper does not divorce her gender from the concerns that inform her larger agenda, she also does not encompass her interest in nationalism within explorations of  domesticity. Certainly one aspect of Coopers desire to explore the natural world in order to formulate a national identity concerns the place of women in society, but to read Rural Hours solely in terms of its attempt to explore the implications of gender roles as exemplified in the natural environment greatly simplifies the complexi ties and layers of Coopers book. I do not wish to suggest that traditional feminist readings of Coopers text are unwarranted or unnecessary, nor that such readings will prove unproductive. I do believe, however, that reading Coopers book through too narrow a focus is hazardous not only in seeking to establish her in the canon of serious and teachable writers, but also in that such a reading sidesteps many larger cultural issues that her text engages. A critical reading of Coopers text should investigate her representations and explorations of gender roles in mid-nineteenth century America as well as her other complex and overt concerns, such as the creation of an American history, the treatment of American Indians, the problems of deforestation, and the religious connotations of the natural world, all of which fall under the rubric, in Coopers text, of the establishment of a national identity.22 As Jones points out, the majority of Coopers text contains descriptions of her surroundings. Her reflections are not always couched in metaphor, as Jones also suggests, but this does not detract from the value of Coopers text, nor does it indicate that Cooper does not entertain significant issues in her writing. Coopers descriptions of her surroundings reflect and embody her larger concern for the development of a national identity based in the land. In her view, the establishment of a national identity is linked to individual conceptions of the land, its flora and fauna, its people, and the relationship of the countrys peoples to the land. Cooper depicts the landscape of Otsego Lake, relates the history of the land and its peoples, and describes the indigenous plants, animals, and waters of the area in an attempt to create an identity of place. The landscape, and the life the land supports, create the identity of this place. Coopers literature of place23 serves not only to create a natural identity for the Otsego Lake region, but also to assert the need for a similarly  constructed national identity. The creation of a national identity, then, is the cultural work of Coopers text; she seeks to locate the natural identity of her new nation. Coopers development of this theme a national identity rooted in the landscape is subtle and calculated, but a scrupulous reading of Rural Hours reveals the careful construction of Coopers text. The opening pages of Rural Hours share observations that reflect the intentions of the book as stated in Coopers 1850 preface: The following notes contain, in a journal form, the simple record of those little events which make up the course of the seasons in rural life. In wandering about the fields, . . . one naturally gleans many trifling observations. . . The following pages were written in perfect good faith, all the trifling incidents alluded to having occurred as they are recorded. (Preface) In her first chapter, we read of the coming of spring: snow thaws, buds appear, robins return to the area. These are seemingly little events, trifling in their lack of worldly significance. One almost immediately notices, however, the pride Cooper takes in plants and animals peculiar to her native land, those that are uniquely Americas own. In contrast to the European robin, our robin never builds [a nest] on the ground (21), and the pretty white-bellied swallow, which has been confounded with the European martin is, Cooper assures, peculiar to America (56). Cooper also explains the uniqueness of American plants, complaining that the wild natives of the woods are often crowded out by European plants that were introduced by the colonists and that [drive] away the prettier natives (81).24 In her discussion of autumn in America, Cooper ruminates, Had the woods of England been as rich as our own English writers would have praised the season in their writings long ago (336). Instead, one is led to believe that the American autumn has helped to set the fashions for the sister season of the Old World (335). American writers reflections on the landscape have encouraged English writers to do the same, Cooper  suggests. These trifling observations begin to speak together, and we find Cooper asserting the importance of knowing the natural forms indigenous to ones place. Thus, for Cooper, determining which birds, animals, and plants are native to America, as well as which of these are unknown to Europeans, helps to define the American landscape, and therefore helps to establish a national identity. She takes pride in her land and in its natural wealth. Cooper also mourns the losses that her land incurs, suggesting that any depletion of the natural aspects of a place drastically alter its identity. Like her seemingly innocent cataloging of natural plants and animals indigenous to America, which emerges as a plea for national pride and definition based on the natural world, her repeated lamentings of disappearing or decreasing portions of the natural world emerge as a plea for the preservation of the wilderness. Like Coopers gently emerging concern for identifying indigenous plants and animals, Cooper gradually develops this theme of loss throughout her text. Little events, when taken cumulatively, have large implications. Cooper observes wild pigeons in early March, for instance, and recalls a previous season when they passed over the valley in large unbroken flocks several miles in extent succeeding each other. Then she remarks, There have not been so many here since that season (18). The reader might dismiss this observation due to its early position in her book, but as one progresses through the text and continually comes across this motif of longing for previous times whensomehownature was more complete, one realizes that Cooper is truly concerned about the changes taking place in her surroundings. Her concern becomes much more overt, but not until much later in the book.25 Coopers seemingly minor concern for the losses of groups of birds or plants culminates in her consideration of the rapid deforestation occurring in the country.26 She returns to the subject many times throughout the course of Rural Hours and, further along in the book, strongly criticizes people for their careless use of timber: One would think that by this time, when the forest has fallen in all the valleys when the hills are becoming more bare every daywhen timber and fuel are rising in prices, and new uses are found for even indifferent woodssome forethought and care in this respect would be natural in people laying claim to common sense. (213-14) Clearly, Cooper is warning her contemporaries by suggesting that they discontinue the destruction of trees for purposes of fueling their homes. The continual destruction of the forests so radically alters the landscape that Cooper cannot conceive of continued deforestation. She not only seeks to educate her audience regarding the benefits of preservation; she also makes the preservation of the American landscape a moral imperative. This moral duty for national preservation becomes linked to Coopers feelings regarding the red man, or Native Americans (93). Again, Cooper subtly portrays this sense of the loss of the indigenous peoples early in Rural Hours. When standing beside a clear running spring, she states, one seems naturally to remember the red man; recollections of his vanished race linger there in a more definite form than elsewhere (93). The rolling, clear water somehow evokes the vanished race: yesterday they were here, to-day scarce a vestige of their existence can be pointed out among us (94). However, later in Rural Hours, Cooper more overtly conveys her feelings regarding the colonists treatment of the indigenous peoples, which she finds integral to the colonists treatment of the landscape. While viewing a forest grove, she laments: It needs but a few short minutes to bring one of these trees to the ground (193). She reminds her readers that entire generations will come and go in the time that it takes for one of these mature trees to reach such magnificent heights: The stout arm so ready to raise the axe to-day, must grow weak with age, it must drop into the grave; its bone and sinew must crumble into dust long before another tree, tall and great as those, shall have grown from the cone in our hand (193-94). In the same paragraph, Cooper calls for a reinstitution of wilderness, claiming that the wild deer, the wolf and the bear must return from beyond the great lakes, and then, significantly, that the bones of the savage men buried under our feet must arise and move again. . . ere trees like those ever appear again, so large, so wild (194).27 The mistreatment of Native Americans emerges as a large theme in Coopers text. She advocates retaining the names they gave to places and portions of the natural world, partly because of the beauty in Indian words, which [unite] both sound and meaning (484). In the creation of a national identity, Cooper intimates, the power of names is very suggestive: names reveal history and meaning, and the Indians words capture both elements. She argues against re-naming places not only due to the beauty of the Native Americans languages, however, but also because she believes that somehow European-Americans owe the indigenous peoples something. The refrain of loss that resonates throughout Coopers text reaches its climax in the following passage. I quote at length to impart Coopers passion: There are many reasons for preserving every Indian name which can be accurately placed; generally, they are recommended by their beauty; but even when harsh in sound, they still have a claim to be kept up on account of their historical interest, and their connection with the dialects of the different tribes. A name is all we leave them, let us at least preserve that monument to their memory; as we travel through the country, and pass river after river, lake after lake, we may thus learn how many were the tribes who have melted away before us, whose very existence would have been utterly forgotten but for the word which recalls the name they once bore. (485) As these words suggest, Coopers concerns in Rural Hours are far-reaching. Cooper finds little distinction between the establishment of a national identity based in the uniqueness of the land, the preservation of the wilderness, and the maintenance of the influence of indigenous cultures.28 The natural history of this place and its people provide its meaning. These enmeshed issues resonate even more strongly when Cooper places them in accordance with her religious ideals. Although her Christianity by no means permeates the text, its presence offers a cohesion between her many areas of interest. Cooper envisions each and every aspect of the natural world as belonging to part of Gods plan for Americans. For example, while admiring a particularly beautiful sky, Cooper says, At hours like these, the immeasurable goodness, the infinite wisdom of our Heavenly Father, are displayed in so great a degree of condescending tenderness to unworthy, sinful man, as must appear quite incomprehensible- entirely incredible to reason alonewere it not for the recollection of the mercies of past years, the positive proofs of experience.What have the best of us done to merit one such day in a lifetime of follies and failings and sins? (73-74) I do want to stress that these moments are rare in Coopers text, that her homilies are short and few, but that they clearly convey her sense of wonder about the natural world.29 She finds value in each aspect of the natural world, and seeks to preserve the world as a testament of her faith in God. While maintaining the Puritan notion that the new world was intended for the colonists to cultivate, and that their duties included imparting Christianity to the Native Americans,30 Cooper also stresses the need to balance the human presence on, and cultivation of, the land with careful preservation of it. She envisions a society that works with the land, not against it, and that creates a national identity based on its intimate knowledge of, and respect for, the natural world. She suggests this balance between humans and nature lightheartedly, saying Many birds like a village life; they seem to think man is a very good-natured animal, building chimneys and roofs, planting groves, and digging gardens for their especial benefit (63). But she also asserts the seriousness of her belief in admiring her village, rural and unambitious, and quite in proportion with surrounding objects (114). Cooper further explains her belief in a rural ideal,31 a sustainable  balance between civilization and nature, in an essay collected in The Home Book of the Picturesque, which was published in 1851: The hand of man generally improves a landscape. The earth has been given to him, and his presence in Eden is natural; he gives life and spirit to the garden. It is only when he endeavors to rise above his true part of laborer and husbandman, when he assumes the character of creator, and piles you up hills, pumps you a river, scatters stones, or sprinkles cascades, that he is apt to fail. Generally the grassy meadow in the valley, the winding road climbing the hill-side, the cheerful village on the bank of the stream, give a higher additional interest to the view; or where there is something amiss in the scene, it is when there is some evident want of judgement, or good sense, or perhaps some proof of selfish avarice, or wastefulness, as when a country is stripped of its wood to fill the pockets or feed the fires of one generation. (82) This interest in creating a national identity based upon a balance of civilization, nature, and the preservation of religious ideologies forms the basic underlying motif in Coopers text. While her words often convey seemingly simple observations about her surroundings, Coopers linking of the natural world and the human treatment of it with the necessity of establishing a national conception of the proper human relationship to nature forms a complex, intricate portrayal of the myriad concerns of nineteenth-century life. Rural Hours also reveals how issues surrounding the formation of national concepts of environmental treatment were intertwined with the establishment of pride in a new country. Additional readings of Rural Hours will undoubtedly uncover themes and tropes unexplored in the present essay. In order for this to occur, however, we must continually ask ourselves how our preconceptions may prohibit finding value in texts that do not meet established, too often unchallenged, criteria for judgements. One can approach Rural Hours, finally, as a natural history engaged in creating the story of a region and as an attempt to appreciate nature on its own terms: not as a commodity for human use, but as beautiful, powerful, and suggestive of Gods greatness. In writing a  balance between humans and nature, Cooper sets an agenda not only for her region, but for the country as a whole. Her text is filled with natural history, but it also expounds upon the concerns of an age in Americas history. As such, it greatly contributes to our understandings of the human presence on the land.

The heat energy given out Essay Example for Free

The heat energy given out Essay I think it will happen for the following scientific reasons: As the size of the carbon chain grows, more bonds are added to the structure of the alcohol. This means that each time, more energy from the surroundings must be extracted in order to break these starting bonds (endothermic stage). Yet, the more energy that is taken to break the bonds, the more energy is used to form the products bonds and this makes the energy of the products greater than that of the reactants. The alcohols start off with methanol, which has 0 carbon carbon bonds, 3 carbon hydrogen bonds, 1 carbon oxygen bond and 1 oxygen hydrogen bond. When the products are formed, excess energy is released which is mainly due to the amount of C = O bonds being made. The products of methanol have 2 C = O bonds and 4 O H bonds. Since a C = O bond has a high energy value of 805, many of them will ensure that the energy of the products is greater than that of the reactants. Here are the theoretical values for the input, output and exothermic heat energy of methanol along with a diagram and the bond energy values: Bond type Energy Value (Kj) Bond type Energy Value. Now lets take ethanol as an example. The bonds are 1 C C bond, 5 C H bonds, 1 C O bond and 1 O H bond. The number of C H bonds has risen by 2 and the carbon bond has gone up by one. For the products, there are 4 C = O bonds and 6 O H bonds which is two more bonds than methanol. Here is the input and output calculation for ethanol: The theoretical input energy for the ethanol is greater than that of methanol as is the output energy and the exothermic heat energy difference. The same is shown with proponal, butanol, pentanol, heptanol and octanol. The pattern that we see is that when the alcohols gain a carbon, they have to break an extra 2 C H bonds (and C C bonds if it is connected to another carbon) and this makes it need more energy from the surroundings which comes out as more energy when the products are formed. The theoretical values show that the more bonds in the reactants, the greater the bonds in the products and the more the theoretical energy difference. Also, since there is a regular change in the structure of the alcohols, then there is probably a regular change in the energies too. There is a regular change in the exothermic energy given out. Here is a graph of my theoretical values in order to show the relationship between the energy given out and the number of carbons: The number and range of results I will need, to obtain reliable evidence are: I will need to have at least 20 results; twice for each different alcohol, perhaps thrice if possible. If each experiment is done at least once, then averages of mass differences can be obtained and will make the energy given out by one mole of alcohol readings of each, much more accurate. The range of these results will be from the alcohol ethanol to the alcohol octanol which is 7 alcohols in all as we are excluding methanol and heptanol. This will enable me to make bond energy charts for each alcohol to easily identify and illustrate the relative heat energies released. I will require the apparatus for my investigation: Spirit burners of each alcohol, 5 heatproof mats, metal stand and clamp, thermometer, can, ruler, measuring cylinder, splint and a cardboard can lid. The way I will use this apparatus to obtain reliable evidence is shown below: Once the apparatus has been assembled as shown, fill the measuring cylinder with a specific volume of water and pour into the can. The starting temperature of the water should be recorded and the temperature it will go up to should be calculated by adding the original temperature to a temperature rise (e. g. 20i C + 7i C =27i C). Check that the distance between the alcohol and spirit burner and that the temperature rise is the same for every experiment. Weigh the alcohol before the experiment and then place in the shelter of the windbreakers, so it is directly underneath the can. Light the alcohol using a lighted splint and close it in with another heatproof mat. Safety glasses must be worn as the alcohols are flammable and if some gets on your hands, they must be washed immediately in case any flame touches your hand. Also, it would be safer and less of an equipment hazard if one Bunsen burner were used. Put the cardboard lid on top of the can and the thermometer through it (punch hole in lid and slide thermometer through). After the water temperature goes up to the one decided, put out the alcohol and weigh its finishing mass. This should be recorded. To prepare for a repeat empty out the can and refill and change the alcohol with another of the same type. Repeat the procedure for other alcohols and take average. I have used the following to help me plan my investigation: I have used the following books to help me plan my investigation: Physics for you by Keith Johnson. On page 37 to 39, I found out information concerning measuring heat energy, its values, specific heat capacity and a table displaying specific heat capacities of different substances. Revision guide for GCSE Double Science Physics where on page 67 to 68, there is information about heat transfer, evaporation, the conduction of heat and vibrating particles. Chemistry for you by Lawrie Ryan (Revised National Curriculum Edition). On page 178 to 179, there is information regarding organic molecules such as alcohol; their structures, physical properties and homologous series. On page 182, there is information on the combustion of alcohols, a brief explanation of the combustion experiment and combustion formulas. On page 186, which is about energy transfer, there is more detailed coverage of incomplete/complete combustion and fuels. On page 190 to 195, there are things about exothermic/endothermic reactions, what happens to the temperature during these reactions, energy level diagrams, making and breaking bonds and finally bond energy calculations.   Nuffield Book of Data sheet has exothermic heat energies of all the alcohols combustion reactions and all the varied bond energy values. I have done the following experiments to help plan my investigation: periment on page 191 to see what substances have endothermic or exothermic reactions. Previous practise experiment of the alcohol investigation, which helped me to find corrections for certain procedures, various precautions, tips that would produce less inaccuracy, discover key factors and how to set up the apparatus. Here is the set up of my results table as an example of what I learnt from the practise experiment.

Challenges to Defining Cybercrime

Challenges to Defining Cybercrime What is Cybercrime? At this point of time there is no commonly agreed definition of ‘Cybercrime’. The area of Cybercrime is very broad and the technical nature of the subject has made extremely difficult for authorities to come up with a precise definition of Cybercrime. The British police have defined Cybercrime as ‘use of any computer network for crime’ and council of Europe has defined Cybercrime as ‘any criminal offence against or with help of computer network. The two definitions offered by the British police and council of Europe are both very broad and they offer very little insight into the nature of conduct which falls under the defined term. Most of us do a vague idea what Cybercrime means but it seems that it is very to difficult to pinpoint the exact conduct which can be regarded as Cybercrime. For the purposes of the dissertation, I shall attempt to come up with my own definition of Cybercrime; the available definitions do not adequately explain the concept of Cybercrime. In order to understand and provide better insight into nature of Cybercrime, it will be a good idea to divide Cybercrime into two categories because computers can be used in two ways to commit Cybercrime. The first category will include crimes in which the computer was used as tool to commit the offence. The computer has enabled criminals to use the technology to commit crimes such as fraud and copyright privacy. The computer can be exploited just as another technical device which can be exploited, for e.g. a phone can be used to verbally abuse someone or stalk someone, someway the internet can be used to stalk someone or verbally abuse someone. The second category will include offences which are committed with intention of damaging or modifying computers. In this category the target of the crime is the computer itself, offences such as hacking. Whichever categories the offence committed falls in, ultimately it are us the humans who have to suffer the consequences of Cybercrime. Now we know that there are two ways in which the computer can be used to commit offences, my definition of Cybercrime would be: â€Å"Illegal acts using the computer as instrument to commit an offence, or targeting a computer network to damage or modifying computers for malicious purposes† Even my definition cannot be regarded as precise, as pointed earlier that due to the broad and technical nature of Cybercrime, it almost impossible to come up with a precise definition. The term Cybercrime is a social term to describe criminal activities which take place in world of computers; it is not an established term within the criminal law. The fact that there is no legal definition of Cybercrime within criminal law makes the whole area of Cybercrime very complicated for concerned authorities and the general public, it creates confusion such as what constitutes as Cybercrime and if Cybercrime cannot be defined properly how will the victims report the crime? The lack of proper definition means that majority of the Cybercrime which takes place is unreported as the victims and the authorities are not sure whether the conduct is a Cybercrime. It is estimated that 90% of the Cybercrime which occurs is unreported. Types of Cybercrime Computer can be used to commit various crimes, in order to have a better understanding of Cybercrime; we shall look at individually the types of crimes which are committed in the world of computers. It will not possible to describe every type of Cybercrime which exists due to the word limit, we will only concentrate on crimes which are considered to be major threats to our security. First Category Fraud Fraud can be defined as use of deception for direct or indirect financial or monetary gain. The internet can be used as means targeting the victim by replicating â€Å"real world† frauds such as get rich quick schemes which don’t exist, emails which demand an additional fee to be paid via credit card to stop loss of service such as internet or banking. The increasing availability of the internet means that fraudsters can carry out fraudulent activities on a grand scale. Fraud is a traditional crime which has existed for centuries and internet is merely a tool by which the fraudsters actions are carried out. Fraud has become a serious threat to e-commerce and other online transactions. Statistics suggest that internet only accounts for 3% of credit card fraud, credit card fraud is one of the more difficult frauds to commit on the internet, however other forms of fraud such as phising are more easier to carry out using the internet and equally lucrative. Phising is a form of fraud which is rapidly increasing. Phising is when you get emails from commercial organizations such your bank and other financial institutions, they would ask you to update your details, emails look genuine and it is a scam to trick people on giving their details. There are no official figures available on ‘phishing scams’ but on average I receive about three emails everyday asking me to update my bank account details. Recently there was email going around asking the staff members and students of LSBU to update their personal details, the email looked genuine but the ICT staff informed students/staff to ignore as it was a trick to gain personal information. Since the advancement of technology, it is has become easier and cheaper to communicate and fraudsters are also taking advantage of technology because it is easier to exploit the internet and it is cheaper than other alternatives such as phone and postal mail. There are other forms of fraud such as auction fraud, it is when buy goods in auction and you pay for the item but your item will never turn up. Fraud is one of the lucrative crimes on the internet; experts suggest that it is more than trafficking drugs. The reasons why fraudsters prefer internet is because: Internet has made mass communication easy and it is cheap, same email can be sent to millions of people very easily and cheaply with just one click of button. Majority of users do not have adequate knowledge on how technology works, this makes it easy for fraudsters to fool innocent people into taking an action such as giving their personal details. Internet users are considered naà ¯ve in the sense that they have too much faith in the information they receive via the internet, therefore, they do not take necessary steps to verify the information and often get tricked in handing out their credit card or personal details. Offences against person(s) Offence against a person can either be physical or mental, it is not possible to cause direct physical harm to a person using a computer but it is possible to cause mental harm such as anxiety, distress or psychological harm. It can be done by sending abusive or threatening emails or posting derogatory information online. Stalking is a crime which is done to harass another person repeatedly. As the number of user on the internet increased, the opportunities for abuse have also increased. It is possible to use internet as a tool for sending abusive emails, leaving offensive messages on guestbooks, or posting misinformation on blogs. In some cases, cyberstalkers have morphed images of their victims onto pornographic images and then emailing the pictures to relative and work colleagues to cause embarrassment. There are mainly three reasons for committing a crime such as stalking, Main reason is usually when relationships fail, former intimates usually target their ex-boyfriend/girlfriend to get revenge. Second reason for cyberstalking is boredom; some people usually pick random people and target them by sending them abusive and threatening emails just for fun. Cyberstalkers take advantage of anonymity of the internet to cause distress to their victim’s life. Hate and racist speech is also a form of crime which escalated since the introduction of the internet; it can cause traumatic experience and mental distress to those who are targeted. Post 9/11, there have been many websites set up to mock the religion Islam, such as www.laughingatislam.com, this website has been cause of distress to many Muslims around the world. Sexual offences This category includes offences which have sexual element, such as making undesired sexual approaches in chat-rooms and paedophiles harrasing children. Child pornography and child protection are one of the main concerns on the internet. Paedophiles are taking full advantage to exploit the technology for viewing and exchanging child pornography. Paedophiles use the internet to their advantage, they use chat rooms and other popular social networks such as facebook to entice and lure children into meeting them. Many popular chat rooms such as MSN Chat and Yahoo chat have closed down their chat rooms to protect young children but closure of popular chat rooms have not stopped paedophiles from using less popular chat rooms and other social networks. Second category Hacking related offences Hacking can be defined as gaining unauthorised access to a computer system. As soon as we hear the word ‘hacking’, we tend to think that it is a crime, it should be noted that hacking started of as show of skill to gain temporary access to computer systems. It was rather an intellectual challenge than a criminal motive. But now, many hackers misuse their skills to inflict damage and destruction. Examples of hacking include stealing confident information such credit card details. In a recent incident of hacking, Harriet Harman whose is a politician, taking part in upcoming elections. Her website was hacked and the blog section of her website encouraged the audience to vote for Boris Johnson whose is a competitor of Harman Harriet. Boris Johnson has also complained that his email account was hacked recently. Most politicians believe that internet as a medium will be a major part of election campaigns and activities such as hacking can sabotage election campaigns by posting disinformation on candidate’s websites. Virus and Other Malicious Programs Virus is a malicious code or program that replicates itself and inserts copies or new versions onto other programs, affecting computer systems. Viruses are designed to modify computer systems without the consent of the owner or operator. Viruses are created to inflict senseless damage to computer system. It is a widely accepted perception that crime is committed in times economic distress. Criminals do not gain any monetary benefit; it is simply done to show off their computer skills. Some viruses are failed programs or accidental releases. The most famous virus which was released is the I LOVE YOU virus or commonly known as the ‘love bug’. The virus damaged millions of computers worldwide; it caused damage worth of $8.5bn, the author of the virus claims that it was released to impress his girlfriend. Legislation on Cybercrime It is often believed that the internet is just like the ‘wild west’ where there no rules and regulations and people are free to carry out illegal activities. Fortunately, this is not true at all; there is legislation which exists to protect us from cybercrimes. Type of crime Legislation Fraud Fraud Act 2006(Covers all types of possible frauds) Offences against person(s) The Public Order Act 1986(Hate speech) Sexual Offences The Protection of children Act 1978 The Criminal Justice Act 1988 The Criminal Justice an Public Order Act 1988 Sexual Offences Act 2003 After carefully reviewing all pieces of legislations mentioned above, I can conclude by saying that legislation we have at the moment is adequate enough to protect us from any sort of traditional crime carried out using computers. There were few anomalies which have been removed now. Anomalies The Theft Act 1968 which previously covered fraud has been replaced by Fraud Act 2006 to cover anomaly under the previous legislation. In the case of Clayman, it was held that it is not unlawful to defraud a computer; the courts do not regard computers as deceivable as the process is fully automated. In theory if we apply the principle deriving from the Clayman case then it will not be unlawful to false credit card number when signing up for an online service such as subscription to a newsgroup or online gaming. There is only exception to this rule that it will not apply if deception involves licensed telecommunications services, such as dial-up chat lines pay-per-view TV. Second anomaly before us was that information was not regarded property. In the case of Oxford v Moss, in this case a student took a copy of forthcoming exam from a lecturer’s desk and made a photocopy of that exam paper, it was held that the student cannot be charged under the theft act as he did not deprive the owner of the asset, a copy had simply been taken. Computers only contain information, by applying the principle deriving from this case, it means that it is acceptable to print other people’s files as long they do not deprive the owner of the file by deleting it, one would only be prosecuted if he/she steals trade secret or confidential information. Decisions in both cases mentioned above are absurd, both of them were decided in 1970s, the only possible reason for reaching absurd decision could only be lack of knowledge on technology. Previous legislation took into account the consequences of the fraudster’s activities when deciding whether the conduct in question is an offence. The Fraud Act 2006 aims to prosecute the fraudsters on the basis of their actual conduct rather than the consequences of their activities. How serious is the threat? In order to determine the seriousness of the threat, it is important to look at the statistics available on cybercrime. Type of crime Number of cases reported Fraud 299,000 Offences against the person 1,944000 Sexual offences 850,238 Computer Misuse(Hacking) 144,500 Virus related incidents 6,000000 Total number of cases reported 9,237738 Source of statistics: Garlik According to the figures, they were approximately 9.23 million incidents of cybercrime reported in the year 2006. Statistics show that 15% of the population of the UK was affected by cybercrime in someway, after looking at these figures; one can easily conclude that we are having an epidemic of cybercrime. These statistics could only the tip of the iceberg of the totality of cybercrime; experts believe that real figure could be 10 times higher as cybercrime is massively under-reported. Reasons for under-reporting Reporting any crime involves a three stage process: The conduct needs to be observed. The conduct needs to categorised as criminal. The relevant authorities need to be informed of the criminal conduct. A particular crime will not be reported if there is failure in any of the stages, therefore the relevant authorities will not take action against the criminal. There are certain factors which affect reporting of cybercrime, factors include: Sometimes the criminal conduct is not noticed, internet fraud usually comprises of low-value transactions across a bulk body of victims, and victims are not always able to spot discrepancy in their bank accounts. Lack of awareness means that the victims may not know whether the conduct in question is a crime. Victims of viruses don’t see them as victims of crime, people tend to see viruses as technical issue, and therefore, the victim would believe that no one has broken the law. Most victims don’t know which authorities they should contact to report cybercrime. Police officers have inadequate amount of resources and don’t have the expertise to deal with cybercrime at the moment, therefore, pursuing a formal complaint can be a difficult process. Once I tried reporting a cybercrime, a laptop was purchased on EBay but the seller took my money and never sent the laptop, this is a common case of auction fraud. I did try to make a complain, the whole process was extremely slow, the officer dealing with me had no clue what EBay is, I was able to register a complaint but it has been two years and my complain is still unresolved. Under-reporting is factor which contributes towards increase in cybercrime, under-reporting mean that criminals will have less fear of getting caught and therefore, they are more likely to commit illegal acts online. People’s attitude towards cybercrime Traditional crimes such as murder, rape and robbery can have serious effects on the victim’s life; in some cases the victim may not be able to lead a normal life after being a victim of crime. In contrast to cybercrime, the impact is not that serious, majority of users have insurance against financial frauds, and frauds are usually of low-value. Viruses can easily be filtered using antivirus software. Other offences such as cyberstalking usually cause some anxiety and distress. Only crimes such as child pornography have a greater impact, it is the only the crime which can have a serious consequences on the victims life. A recent survey suggest that only 37% are afraid to use the internet after being a victim of crime, majority of the users do continue to use the internet after being a victim. Cybercrime and e-commerce Cybercrime is a growing concern for all of us, however, the effects of cybercrime are not hindering the growth of the internet, and the effects of cybercrime on the e-commerce have not been drastic. Financial transactions over the internet are on the rise, number of people using internet for shopping is increase day by day and over one third of population is using internet banking. One of the reasons why cybercrime spiraling out of control is the fact that it is very easy to commit if have the technical knowledge, all you need is a computer connected to the internet, the crimes on the internet are hard to detect. It can be committed from anywhere in the world, the criminal could sitting in Africa and targeting his victim in Australia. In the next chapter, we shall examine the problems faced by authorities when investigating cybercrime. Jurisdiction Jurisdictional issues and the cyberspace Cyberspace is a world without defined boundaries; anyone can access any website using his computer. It can very difficult to locate the source of crime in cyberspace because relative anonymity and as easy way to shield identity. Even if the relevant authorities are able to identify the source of crime, it is not always easy to prosecute the criminal. Double criminality When dealing cross border crime, it is imperative that both countries should recognise the conduct as illegal in both jurisdictions. The principle of double criminality prohibits the extradition of a person, if the conduct in question is not recognized as a criminal offence by the country receiving the request for jurisdiction. Imagine a situation where a computer programmer from Zimbabwe sends Barclays bank a virus which causes the computers in Barclays bank to malfunction, the bank cannot carry out their business for 1 hour and as a result they lose about $1 million worth of revenue. English authorities would want to extradite the offender to England so they could prosecute the offender. In an action for extradition, the applicant is required to show that actions of the accused constitute a criminal offence exceeding a minimum level of seriousness in both jurisdictions. Imagine now that they are no laws on spreading viruses in Zimbabwe, therefore it will not possible to show offender’s action constitute as criminal behavior. If they are no laws regarding on cybercrime in Zimbabwe then he cannot be extradited and he will walk free after deliberately causing damage to Barclays bank. Cybercrime has an international dimension, it is imperative that legal protection is harmonised internationally. There are still about 33 countries such as Albania, Yugoslavia and Malta; they have no laws on cybercrimes. If there are no laws then those countries are considered as computer crime havens. The perpetrator of ‘I LOVE YOU’ virus which caused $8.5 billion worth damage was caught in Philippines but he could not be prosecuted as Philippines had no laws on cybercrime. Cybercrime is global issue and the world will need to work together in order to tackle cybercrime. How real world crime dealt across borders? In relation to real world crime which transcended national borders, an idiosyncratic network of Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties(MLATs) bound various countries to assist each other in investigating real world crime, such as drug trafficking. If there was no treaty agreement between two countries then they would contact the relevant authorities to ask for assistance and obtain evidence, this mechanism was sufficient in dealing with real world crime. This mechanism can only work if both countries have similar cybercrime laws; if any country lacks cybercrime laws then the process would fail. How should Jurisdiction be approached in Cybercrime? In a case of cyberstalking, An Australian man was stalking a Canadian Actress. The man harassed the actress by sending unsolicited emails. Australian Supreme Court of Victoria held that crimes ‘committed over the internet knows no borders’ and ‘State and national boundaries do not concern them’, therefore, jurisdiction should not be the issue. He was convicted. This case was straightforward as both nations recognise stalking as a criminal offence, however, there can be conflicts if both nations do not recognize the act as criminal. In Licra v Yahoo, French courts tried to exercise jurisdiction over an American company. Yahoo was accused of Nazi memorabilia contrary to Article R645-1 of the French Criminal Code. Yahoo argued that there are not in breach of Article R645-1 as they were conducting the auction under the jurisdiction of USA and it is not illegal to sell Nazi memorabilia under the American law. In order to prove that Yahoo is subject American jurisdiction, they argued the following points: Yahoo servers are located in US territory. Services of Yahoo are primarily aimed at US citizens. According to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, freedom of speech and expression is guaranteed and any attempt to enforce judgement which restricts freedom of speech and expression would fail for unconstitutionality. The court ruled that they have full jurisdiction over Yahoo because: The auction was open to worldwide bidders, including France. It is possible to view the auction in France, viewing and displaying Nazi memorabilia causes public nuisance and it is offence to public nuisance under the French law. Yahoo had a customer base in France, the advertisements were in French. Yahoo did have knowledge that French citizens use their site; therefore they should not do anything to offend French citizens. Yahoo ignored the French court ruling and kept saying that they French court does not have the right to exercise jurisdiction over an American company. Yahoo was warned that they would have to pay heavy fines if they don’t comply. In the end Yahoo owners did comply with the judgement they had substantial assets in France which were at risk of being confiscated if they don’t claim. The sole reason why French courts were able to exercise jurisdiction over Yahoo because it is a multinational company with large presence in France. Imagine instead of France, if the action would have been taken by courts of Saudi Arabia on auctioning playboy magazines, under the Saudi Arabian Sharia law, it is illegal to view or buy pornography. Saudi Arabia court would have failed to exercise jurisdiction over Yahoo as they don’t have any presence in Saudi Arabia but it was possible to view Yahoo auctions from Saudi Arabia. The case of Yahoo is a rare example where a court was able to exercise jurisdiction over a foreign company. In majority of the cases concerning individuals, courts trying to exercise jurisdiction over foreign elements are usually ignored. In the case of Nottinghamshire County Council v. Gwatkin (UK), injunctions were issued against many journalists to prevent them from publishing disseminating a leaked report that strongly criticises [the Councils] handling of allegations of satanic abuse of children in the 1980s. Despite the injunctions, a report appeared on an American website. The website refused to respect the English jurisdiction as they argued that the report was a public document. The Nottinghamshire had no option then to drop the case. Cybercrime has an international dimension. International law is complicated area, it can be very difficult to co-operate with authorities if there is no or weak diplomatic ties, for e.g. Pakistan and Israel have no diplomatic ties, if a situation arises where Israeli citizen hacks into State bank of Pakistan steals millions of dollars from the bank, in a situation like this, one easily assume that both countries would not co-operate with each other even though both countries recognise hacking as a offence but they do not have diplomatic ties with each other, most probably the hacker would get away with the crime. A case involving Russian hackers, they hacked into Paypal and stole 53,000 credit card details. Paypal is an American company. The Russian hackers blackmailed Paypal and asked for a substantial amount of money, they threatened they would publish the details of 53,000 credit cards if they do not receive the money. Russia and American both have signed extradition treaty but still Russian authorities failed to take action, it is still not clear why they did not take appropriate action against the Russian hackers. Both nations struggled to gain jurisdiction over each other. FBI decided to take things into their own hands by setting up a secret operation, undercover agents posed as reprenstatives of a bogus security firm Invita. The bogus security firm invited the Russian hackers to US with prospects of employment. When the interview for employment by the bogus firm Invita was being carried out, the Russian hackers were asked to display there hacking skills, one of the hackers accessed his own system in Russia to show off his skills, the FBI recorded every keystroke and later arrested the Russian hackers for multiple offences such as hacking, fraud and extortion. The keystrokes recorded were later used to hack into one of the hacker’s computer in Russia to access incriminating evidence. All this took place without the knowledge of Russian authorities. When Russian authorities came to know about whole incident, they were furious and argued that US misused their authority and infringing on another sovereign nation’s jurisdiction. Lack of co-operation in relation to jurisdiction can lead to serious problems between nations, in order to avoid such conflicts, there is need to address the jurisdiction issue and come up with a mechanism which ensures that countries co-operate with each other. Where is the Jurisdiction? In the real world crime, the conduct and the effect of the conduct are easy to pin down because we can visibly see the human carrying out the conduct and the effect of the conduct is also visible. The location of the offence and the location of the perpetrator can easily be identified. Imagine a situation in which a shooter in Canada shots an American across Niagara Falls, it is clear from the example that the conduct took place in Canada and the effect of the conduct took place in Canada. Cyberspace is not real, people say that events on cyberspace occur everywhere and nowhere, a man disseminating a virus could release a virus which travel through servers of many different country before reaching the victim, for e.g. a person makes a racist website targeting Jews in Malta, uploads the website on American servers and the website is available for everyone to see, a Jewish living in Israel comes across the website and gets offended. In a situation like this where would you bring an action, should you bring an action in Malta because the perpetrator is based over there, would bring an action in America where the server is hosted or would bring the action in Israel where the victim is? There are specific laws regarding jurisdiction issues on the internet, the world is still struggling to come up with a solution which would solve the problem of jurisdiction. Positive or Negative Jurisdiction? The principle of negative jurisdiction occurs when no country is willing to exercise jurisdiction for a cybercrime. Cybercrime can have multiple victims in different countries; the ‘love bug’ caused damage in many different countries including USA, UK, France and Germany. If the damage is caused to multiple countries then who should claim jurisdiction over the cybercrime, should it by prioritised by the amount of damage suffered by each country. If the effected countries decide not to take action against the perpetrator because it is not in their best interest, the country may be occupied by other internal problems. If no country is willing to exercise jurisdiction over a cybercrime then the perpetrator would walk free. Positive jurisdiction is opposite of negative jurisdiction, how will the issue of jurisdiction be decided if more than two countries want to exercise t Challenges to Defining Cybercrime Challenges to Defining Cybercrime What is Cybercrime? At this point of time there is no commonly agreed definition of ‘Cybercrime’. The area of Cybercrime is very broad and the technical nature of the subject has made extremely difficult for authorities to come up with a precise definition of Cybercrime. The British police have defined Cybercrime as ‘use of any computer network for crime’ and council of Europe has defined Cybercrime as ‘any criminal offence against or with help of computer network. The two definitions offered by the British police and council of Europe are both very broad and they offer very little insight into the nature of conduct which falls under the defined term. Most of us do a vague idea what Cybercrime means but it seems that it is very to difficult to pinpoint the exact conduct which can be regarded as Cybercrime. For the purposes of the dissertation, I shall attempt to come up with my own definition of Cybercrime; the available definitions do not adequately explain the concept of Cybercrime. In order to understand and provide better insight into nature of Cybercrime, it will be a good idea to divide Cybercrime into two categories because computers can be used in two ways to commit Cybercrime. The first category will include crimes in which the computer was used as tool to commit the offence. The computer has enabled criminals to use the technology to commit crimes such as fraud and copyright privacy. The computer can be exploited just as another technical device which can be exploited, for e.g. a phone can be used to verbally abuse someone or stalk someone, someway the internet can be used to stalk someone or verbally abuse someone. The second category will include offences which are committed with intention of damaging or modifying computers. In this category the target of the crime is the computer itself, offences such as hacking. Whichever categories the offence committed falls in, ultimately it are us the humans who have to suffer the consequences of Cybercrime. Now we know that there are two ways in which the computer can be used to commit offences, my definition of Cybercrime would be: â€Å"Illegal acts using the computer as instrument to commit an offence, or targeting a computer network to damage or modifying computers for malicious purposes† Even my definition cannot be regarded as precise, as pointed earlier that due to the broad and technical nature of Cybercrime, it almost impossible to come up with a precise definition. The term Cybercrime is a social term to describe criminal activities which take place in world of computers; it is not an established term within the criminal law. The fact that there is no legal definition of Cybercrime within criminal law makes the whole area of Cybercrime very complicated for concerned authorities and the general public, it creates confusion such as what constitutes as Cybercrime and if Cybercrime cannot be defined properly how will the victims report the crime? The lack of proper definition means that majority of the Cybercrime which takes place is unreported as the victims and the authorities are not sure whether the conduct is a Cybercrime. It is estimated that 90% of the Cybercrime which occurs is unreported. Types of Cybercrime Computer can be used to commit various crimes, in order to have a better understanding of Cybercrime; we shall look at individually the types of crimes which are committed in the world of computers. It will not possible to describe every type of Cybercrime which exists due to the word limit, we will only concentrate on crimes which are considered to be major threats to our security. First Category Fraud Fraud can be defined as use of deception for direct or indirect financial or monetary gain. The internet can be used as means targeting the victim by replicating â€Å"real world† frauds such as get rich quick schemes which don’t exist, emails which demand an additional fee to be paid via credit card to stop loss of service such as internet or banking. The increasing availability of the internet means that fraudsters can carry out fraudulent activities on a grand scale. Fraud is a traditional crime which has existed for centuries and internet is merely a tool by which the fraudsters actions are carried out. Fraud has become a serious threat to e-commerce and other online transactions. Statistics suggest that internet only accounts for 3% of credit card fraud, credit card fraud is one of the more difficult frauds to commit on the internet, however other forms of fraud such as phising are more easier to carry out using the internet and equally lucrative. Phising is a form of fraud which is rapidly increasing. Phising is when you get emails from commercial organizations such your bank and other financial institutions, they would ask you to update your details, emails look genuine and it is a scam to trick people on giving their details. There are no official figures available on ‘phishing scams’ but on average I receive about three emails everyday asking me to update my bank account details. Recently there was email going around asking the staff members and students of LSBU to update their personal details, the email looked genuine but the ICT staff informed students/staff to ignore as it was a trick to gain personal information. Since the advancement of technology, it is has become easier and cheaper to communicate and fraudsters are also taking advantage of technology because it is easier to exploit the internet and it is cheaper than other alternatives such as phone and postal mail. There are other forms of fraud such as auction fraud, it is when buy goods in auction and you pay for the item but your item will never turn up. Fraud is one of the lucrative crimes on the internet; experts suggest that it is more than trafficking drugs. The reasons why fraudsters prefer internet is because: Internet has made mass communication easy and it is cheap, same email can be sent to millions of people very easily and cheaply with just one click of button. Majority of users do not have adequate knowledge on how technology works, this makes it easy for fraudsters to fool innocent people into taking an action such as giving their personal details. Internet users are considered naà ¯ve in the sense that they have too much faith in the information they receive via the internet, therefore, they do not take necessary steps to verify the information and often get tricked in handing out their credit card or personal details. Offences against person(s) Offence against a person can either be physical or mental, it is not possible to cause direct physical harm to a person using a computer but it is possible to cause mental harm such as anxiety, distress or psychological harm. It can be done by sending abusive or threatening emails or posting derogatory information online. Stalking is a crime which is done to harass another person repeatedly. As the number of user on the internet increased, the opportunities for abuse have also increased. It is possible to use internet as a tool for sending abusive emails, leaving offensive messages on guestbooks, or posting misinformation on blogs. In some cases, cyberstalkers have morphed images of their victims onto pornographic images and then emailing the pictures to relative and work colleagues to cause embarrassment. There are mainly three reasons for committing a crime such as stalking, Main reason is usually when relationships fail, former intimates usually target their ex-boyfriend/girlfriend to get revenge. Second reason for cyberstalking is boredom; some people usually pick random people and target them by sending them abusive and threatening emails just for fun. Cyberstalkers take advantage of anonymity of the internet to cause distress to their victim’s life. Hate and racist speech is also a form of crime which escalated since the introduction of the internet; it can cause traumatic experience and mental distress to those who are targeted. Post 9/11, there have been many websites set up to mock the religion Islam, such as www.laughingatislam.com, this website has been cause of distress to many Muslims around the world. Sexual offences This category includes offences which have sexual element, such as making undesired sexual approaches in chat-rooms and paedophiles harrasing children. Child pornography and child protection are one of the main concerns on the internet. Paedophiles are taking full advantage to exploit the technology for viewing and exchanging child pornography. Paedophiles use the internet to their advantage, they use chat rooms and other popular social networks such as facebook to entice and lure children into meeting them. Many popular chat rooms such as MSN Chat and Yahoo chat have closed down their chat rooms to protect young children but closure of popular chat rooms have not stopped paedophiles from using less popular chat rooms and other social networks. Second category Hacking related offences Hacking can be defined as gaining unauthorised access to a computer system. As soon as we hear the word ‘hacking’, we tend to think that it is a crime, it should be noted that hacking started of as show of skill to gain temporary access to computer systems. It was rather an intellectual challenge than a criminal motive. But now, many hackers misuse their skills to inflict damage and destruction. Examples of hacking include stealing confident information such credit card details. In a recent incident of hacking, Harriet Harman whose is a politician, taking part in upcoming elections. Her website was hacked and the blog section of her website encouraged the audience to vote for Boris Johnson whose is a competitor of Harman Harriet. Boris Johnson has also complained that his email account was hacked recently. Most politicians believe that internet as a medium will be a major part of election campaigns and activities such as hacking can sabotage election campaigns by posting disinformation on candidate’s websites. Virus and Other Malicious Programs Virus is a malicious code or program that replicates itself and inserts copies or new versions onto other programs, affecting computer systems. Viruses are designed to modify computer systems without the consent of the owner or operator. Viruses are created to inflict senseless damage to computer system. It is a widely accepted perception that crime is committed in times economic distress. Criminals do not gain any monetary benefit; it is simply done to show off their computer skills. Some viruses are failed programs or accidental releases. The most famous virus which was released is the I LOVE YOU virus or commonly known as the ‘love bug’. The virus damaged millions of computers worldwide; it caused damage worth of $8.5bn, the author of the virus claims that it was released to impress his girlfriend. Legislation on Cybercrime It is often believed that the internet is just like the ‘wild west’ where there no rules and regulations and people are free to carry out illegal activities. Fortunately, this is not true at all; there is legislation which exists to protect us from cybercrimes. Type of crime Legislation Fraud Fraud Act 2006(Covers all types of possible frauds) Offences against person(s) The Public Order Act 1986(Hate speech) Sexual Offences The Protection of children Act 1978 The Criminal Justice Act 1988 The Criminal Justice an Public Order Act 1988 Sexual Offences Act 2003 After carefully reviewing all pieces of legislations mentioned above, I can conclude by saying that legislation we have at the moment is adequate enough to protect us from any sort of traditional crime carried out using computers. There were few anomalies which have been removed now. Anomalies The Theft Act 1968 which previously covered fraud has been replaced by Fraud Act 2006 to cover anomaly under the previous legislation. In the case of Clayman, it was held that it is not unlawful to defraud a computer; the courts do not regard computers as deceivable as the process is fully automated. In theory if we apply the principle deriving from the Clayman case then it will not be unlawful to false credit card number when signing up for an online service such as subscription to a newsgroup or online gaming. There is only exception to this rule that it will not apply if deception involves licensed telecommunications services, such as dial-up chat lines pay-per-view TV. Second anomaly before us was that information was not regarded property. In the case of Oxford v Moss, in this case a student took a copy of forthcoming exam from a lecturer’s desk and made a photocopy of that exam paper, it was held that the student cannot be charged under the theft act as he did not deprive the owner of the asset, a copy had simply been taken. Computers only contain information, by applying the principle deriving from this case, it means that it is acceptable to print other people’s files as long they do not deprive the owner of the file by deleting it, one would only be prosecuted if he/she steals trade secret or confidential information. Decisions in both cases mentioned above are absurd, both of them were decided in 1970s, the only possible reason for reaching absurd decision could only be lack of knowledge on technology. Previous legislation took into account the consequences of the fraudster’s activities when deciding whether the conduct in question is an offence. The Fraud Act 2006 aims to prosecute the fraudsters on the basis of their actual conduct rather than the consequences of their activities. How serious is the threat? In order to determine the seriousness of the threat, it is important to look at the statistics available on cybercrime. Type of crime Number of cases reported Fraud 299,000 Offences against the person 1,944000 Sexual offences 850,238 Computer Misuse(Hacking) 144,500 Virus related incidents 6,000000 Total number of cases reported 9,237738 Source of statistics: Garlik According to the figures, they were approximately 9.23 million incidents of cybercrime reported in the year 2006. Statistics show that 15% of the population of the UK was affected by cybercrime in someway, after looking at these figures; one can easily conclude that we are having an epidemic of cybercrime. These statistics could only the tip of the iceberg of the totality of cybercrime; experts believe that real figure could be 10 times higher as cybercrime is massively under-reported. Reasons for under-reporting Reporting any crime involves a three stage process: The conduct needs to be observed. The conduct needs to categorised as criminal. The relevant authorities need to be informed of the criminal conduct. A particular crime will not be reported if there is failure in any of the stages, therefore the relevant authorities will not take action against the criminal. There are certain factors which affect reporting of cybercrime, factors include: Sometimes the criminal conduct is not noticed, internet fraud usually comprises of low-value transactions across a bulk body of victims, and victims are not always able to spot discrepancy in their bank accounts. Lack of awareness means that the victims may not know whether the conduct in question is a crime. Victims of viruses don’t see them as victims of crime, people tend to see viruses as technical issue, and therefore, the victim would believe that no one has broken the law. Most victims don’t know which authorities they should contact to report cybercrime. Police officers have inadequate amount of resources and don’t have the expertise to deal with cybercrime at the moment, therefore, pursuing a formal complaint can be a difficult process. Once I tried reporting a cybercrime, a laptop was purchased on EBay but the seller took my money and never sent the laptop, this is a common case of auction fraud. I did try to make a complain, the whole process was extremely slow, the officer dealing with me had no clue what EBay is, I was able to register a complaint but it has been two years and my complain is still unresolved. Under-reporting is factor which contributes towards increase in cybercrime, under-reporting mean that criminals will have less fear of getting caught and therefore, they are more likely to commit illegal acts online. People’s attitude towards cybercrime Traditional crimes such as murder, rape and robbery can have serious effects on the victim’s life; in some cases the victim may not be able to lead a normal life after being a victim of crime. In contrast to cybercrime, the impact is not that serious, majority of users have insurance against financial frauds, and frauds are usually of low-value. Viruses can easily be filtered using antivirus software. Other offences such as cyberstalking usually cause some anxiety and distress. Only crimes such as child pornography have a greater impact, it is the only the crime which can have a serious consequences on the victims life. A recent survey suggest that only 37% are afraid to use the internet after being a victim of crime, majority of the users do continue to use the internet after being a victim. Cybercrime and e-commerce Cybercrime is a growing concern for all of us, however, the effects of cybercrime are not hindering the growth of the internet, and the effects of cybercrime on the e-commerce have not been drastic. Financial transactions over the internet are on the rise, number of people using internet for shopping is increase day by day and over one third of population is using internet banking. One of the reasons why cybercrime spiraling out of control is the fact that it is very easy to commit if have the technical knowledge, all you need is a computer connected to the internet, the crimes on the internet are hard to detect. It can be committed from anywhere in the world, the criminal could sitting in Africa and targeting his victim in Australia. In the next chapter, we shall examine the problems faced by authorities when investigating cybercrime. Jurisdiction Jurisdictional issues and the cyberspace Cyberspace is a world without defined boundaries; anyone can access any website using his computer. It can very difficult to locate the source of crime in cyberspace because relative anonymity and as easy way to shield identity. Even if the relevant authorities are able to identify the source of crime, it is not always easy to prosecute the criminal. Double criminality When dealing cross border crime, it is imperative that both countries should recognise the conduct as illegal in both jurisdictions. The principle of double criminality prohibits the extradition of a person, if the conduct in question is not recognized as a criminal offence by the country receiving the request for jurisdiction. Imagine a situation where a computer programmer from Zimbabwe sends Barclays bank a virus which causes the computers in Barclays bank to malfunction, the bank cannot carry out their business for 1 hour and as a result they lose about $1 million worth of revenue. English authorities would want to extradite the offender to England so they could prosecute the offender. In an action for extradition, the applicant is required to show that actions of the accused constitute a criminal offence exceeding a minimum level of seriousness in both jurisdictions. Imagine now that they are no laws on spreading viruses in Zimbabwe, therefore it will not possible to show offender’s action constitute as criminal behavior. If they are no laws regarding on cybercrime in Zimbabwe then he cannot be extradited and he will walk free after deliberately causing damage to Barclays bank. Cybercrime has an international dimension, it is imperative that legal protection is harmonised internationally. There are still about 33 countries such as Albania, Yugoslavia and Malta; they have no laws on cybercrimes. If there are no laws then those countries are considered as computer crime havens. The perpetrator of ‘I LOVE YOU’ virus which caused $8.5 billion worth damage was caught in Philippines but he could not be prosecuted as Philippines had no laws on cybercrime. Cybercrime is global issue and the world will need to work together in order to tackle cybercrime. How real world crime dealt across borders? In relation to real world crime which transcended national borders, an idiosyncratic network of Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties(MLATs) bound various countries to assist each other in investigating real world crime, such as drug trafficking. If there was no treaty agreement between two countries then they would contact the relevant authorities to ask for assistance and obtain evidence, this mechanism was sufficient in dealing with real world crime. This mechanism can only work if both countries have similar cybercrime laws; if any country lacks cybercrime laws then the process would fail. How should Jurisdiction be approached in Cybercrime? In a case of cyberstalking, An Australian man was stalking a Canadian Actress. The man harassed the actress by sending unsolicited emails. Australian Supreme Court of Victoria held that crimes ‘committed over the internet knows no borders’ and ‘State and national boundaries do not concern them’, therefore, jurisdiction should not be the issue. He was convicted. This case was straightforward as both nations recognise stalking as a criminal offence, however, there can be conflicts if both nations do not recognize the act as criminal. In Licra v Yahoo, French courts tried to exercise jurisdiction over an American company. Yahoo was accused of Nazi memorabilia contrary to Article R645-1 of the French Criminal Code. Yahoo argued that there are not in breach of Article R645-1 as they were conducting the auction under the jurisdiction of USA and it is not illegal to sell Nazi memorabilia under the American law. In order to prove that Yahoo is subject American jurisdiction, they argued the following points: Yahoo servers are located in US territory. Services of Yahoo are primarily aimed at US citizens. According to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, freedom of speech and expression is guaranteed and any attempt to enforce judgement which restricts freedom of speech and expression would fail for unconstitutionality. The court ruled that they have full jurisdiction over Yahoo because: The auction was open to worldwide bidders, including France. It is possible to view the auction in France, viewing and displaying Nazi memorabilia causes public nuisance and it is offence to public nuisance under the French law. Yahoo had a customer base in France, the advertisements were in French. Yahoo did have knowledge that French citizens use their site; therefore they should not do anything to offend French citizens. Yahoo ignored the French court ruling and kept saying that they French court does not have the right to exercise jurisdiction over an American company. Yahoo was warned that they would have to pay heavy fines if they don’t comply. In the end Yahoo owners did comply with the judgement they had substantial assets in France which were at risk of being confiscated if they don’t claim. The sole reason why French courts were able to exercise jurisdiction over Yahoo because it is a multinational company with large presence in France. Imagine instead of France, if the action would have been taken by courts of Saudi Arabia on auctioning playboy magazines, under the Saudi Arabian Sharia law, it is illegal to view or buy pornography. Saudi Arabia court would have failed to exercise jurisdiction over Yahoo as they don’t have any presence in Saudi Arabia but it was possible to view Yahoo auctions from Saudi Arabia. The case of Yahoo is a rare example where a court was able to exercise jurisdiction over a foreign company. In majority of the cases concerning individuals, courts trying to exercise jurisdiction over foreign elements are usually ignored. In the case of Nottinghamshire County Council v. Gwatkin (UK), injunctions were issued against many journalists to prevent them from publishing disseminating a leaked report that strongly criticises [the Councils] handling of allegations of satanic abuse of children in the 1980s. Despite the injunctions, a report appeared on an American website. The website refused to respect the English jurisdiction as they argued that the report was a public document. The Nottinghamshire had no option then to drop the case. Cybercrime has an international dimension. International law is complicated area, it can be very difficult to co-operate with authorities if there is no or weak diplomatic ties, for e.g. Pakistan and Israel have no diplomatic ties, if a situation arises where Israeli citizen hacks into State bank of Pakistan steals millions of dollars from the bank, in a situation like this, one easily assume that both countries would not co-operate with each other even though both countries recognise hacking as a offence but they do not have diplomatic ties with each other, most probably the hacker would get away with the crime. A case involving Russian hackers, they hacked into Paypal and stole 53,000 credit card details. Paypal is an American company. The Russian hackers blackmailed Paypal and asked for a substantial amount of money, they threatened they would publish the details of 53,000 credit cards if they do not receive the money. Russia and American both have signed extradition treaty but still Russian authorities failed to take action, it is still not clear why they did not take appropriate action against the Russian hackers. Both nations struggled to gain jurisdiction over each other. FBI decided to take things into their own hands by setting up a secret operation, undercover agents posed as reprenstatives of a bogus security firm Invita. The bogus security firm invited the Russian hackers to US with prospects of employment. When the interview for employment by the bogus firm Invita was being carried out, the Russian hackers were asked to display there hacking skills, one of the hackers accessed his own system in Russia to show off his skills, the FBI recorded every keystroke and later arrested the Russian hackers for multiple offences such as hacking, fraud and extortion. The keystrokes recorded were later used to hack into one of the hacker’s computer in Russia to access incriminating evidence. All this took place without the knowledge of Russian authorities. When Russian authorities came to know about whole incident, they were furious and argued that US misused their authority and infringing on another sovereign nation’s jurisdiction. Lack of co-operation in relation to jurisdiction can lead to serious problems between nations, in order to avoid such conflicts, there is need to address the jurisdiction issue and come up with a mechanism which ensures that countries co-operate with each other. Where is the Jurisdiction? In the real world crime, the conduct and the effect of the conduct are easy to pin down because we can visibly see the human carrying out the conduct and the effect of the conduct is also visible. The location of the offence and the location of the perpetrator can easily be identified. Imagine a situation in which a shooter in Canada shots an American across Niagara Falls, it is clear from the example that the conduct took place in Canada and the effect of the conduct took place in Canada. Cyberspace is not real, people say that events on cyberspace occur everywhere and nowhere, a man disseminating a virus could release a virus which travel through servers of many different country before reaching the victim, for e.g. a person makes a racist website targeting Jews in Malta, uploads the website on American servers and the website is available for everyone to see, a Jewish living in Israel comes across the website and gets offended. In a situation like this where would you bring an action, should you bring an action in Malta because the perpetrator is based over there, would bring an action in America where the server is hosted or would bring the action in Israel where the victim is? There are specific laws regarding jurisdiction issues on the internet, the world is still struggling to come up with a solution which would solve the problem of jurisdiction. Positive or Negative Jurisdiction? The principle of negative jurisdiction occurs when no country is willing to exercise jurisdiction for a cybercrime. Cybercrime can have multiple victims in different countries; the ‘love bug’ caused damage in many different countries including USA, UK, France and Germany. If the damage is caused to multiple countries then who should claim jurisdiction over the cybercrime, should it by prioritised by the amount of damage suffered by each country. If the effected countries decide not to take action against the perpetrator because it is not in their best interest, the country may be occupied by other internal problems. If no country is willing to exercise jurisdiction over a cybercrime then the perpetrator would walk free. Positive jurisdiction is opposite of negative jurisdiction, how will the issue of jurisdiction be decided if more than two countries want to exercise t